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Ancient and historical town on the eastern borders of Poland
38m north east of Lublin.
Historical birthplace of our Marczak family.
Marczak family history runs hand in hand with the history of this town.
A land of stalks, forests and boggy wetlands especially between Parczew and Wlodawa extending into the Prypyat/Pinsk marshes.
1] Brief History
During the golden age of the Polish Lithuanian Commenwealth (Polish First Republic) Parczew received civic right in 1401 from king Władysław Jagiełło.
The time of the Jagiellonian Kings dynasty rule (1386–1572) was the heyday for Parczew and its surroundings. It was located then on the route from the national capital, Krakow, to the Lithuanian capital, Vilnius, and as such, was an important transport and political centre and would host many Polish Sejm (Parliament-Nobility) meetings/congress.
At the end of the Jagiellonian era the commonwealth ceased, there was no need for journeys between Krakow and Vilnius and so the town declined back to a simple town ravaged by invasions..
1500 - Parczew was destroyed by the Tatars. (Turkic/mongol muslim invaders from Kazakhstan regions)
1544 - Parczew was again destroyed by the Tatars.
1554 - Tzar Queen Catherine l spent a few weeks at the castle in Parczew.
1556 - The great fire burned down the royal castle town and the parish church ..bell tower was saved.
1575 - On the square of the burnt down castle was built a new parish church. św. St. Jana Chrzciciela. John the Baptist. Uniate - Greek Catholic church.
1649 - Parczew was burned by the Cossacks. (Runaway peasants from Ukraine regions- independant of any noble or state)
1655 - Parczew destroyed by Swedes “the deluge”.
1718 - As a result of wars, famine and epidemics "pestilence" Parczew was almost completely depopulated- lowest point of population but soon recovered.
1794 - As part of Kosciusko’s peasant uprising - in April 1794. Lieutenant Colonel Jan Grochowski proclaimed an insurrection in Parczew - local peasants rallied.
First time peasants were given hope of emancipation, freedoms and land - and importantly to become part of the Nation of Poland. - These uprisings were defeated but the seed had been sown.
1795 - Part of the Austrian Empire
1805 - From the previous church site (in the old castle), the wooden bell tower from the 15-16th century was moved to its present location.
1807 - Part of Duchy of Warsaw - annexed to Napoleon's France
1812 - Russia defeats Napoleon - Parczew belongs to the Russian Tsar Alexander l. Local nobles supporting Napoleon were exiled to Siberia and their lands confiscated.
1863 - Tsar Alexander ll instructed forced conscription of Poles into Russian army for the Russia - Japan War - Uprisings resulted all over Poland -clashes in Parczew on 21st June.
Severe reprisals against insurgents, such as public executions and deportations to Siberia, led many people to abandon the armed struggle.
1874 - The most bloody persecution of Uniates by the Russians. From Parczew 22 familes exiled to Siberia. Other Uniates stopped going to church rather than practice Russian Orthodoxy.
1905 - Last Tsar of Russia Nicholas ll changed the constitution with an edict for religious tolerance, almost immediatly 4,600 Parczew Uniates converted to the Catholic religion and started construction of a new brick church. (the present Basilica.)
Completed in 1913 named Wniebowziecia Matki bozej - Our Lady of the Assumption still in the Parish of John the Baptist
Throughout the eastern provinces some 300,000 Uniates converted to the Catholic religion as a result of the edict.
1915 - WW1 Prussians (Germans) entered the town
1919 Feb - 1921 March - Polish Bolshevik War - Grandfather Stanislaw is in the 24 Pułk Ułanów (24th Lancers) based at Krasnik.
1921 - Parczew part of Polish Second Republic - Stanislaw is granted land at Targowica as Settlers (Osadniks) in the Kresy.
1939 - WW2 begins (Sept 1st) - Last battle of the invasion occurs 30 miles west of Parczew at Kock (October) - soon after Germans entered the town and created a ghetto for all Jews who were later sent to Treblinka (1942)
Members of our family - Jan, Felix and his brother Stanislaw join Polish resistance are caught during first 12 months and sent to Auschwitz where they all died between Oct 1941 and June 1942.
In Targowica the Russians occupied the region and exiled all Osadniks (entire familes) to Siberia including our Grandfathers family (our parents).
1944 - Aug - Russians occupy the region.
1945 - End of WW2 Poland and Parcew in the Russian Communist block
1989 - Parczew and Poland is free - The Third Republic begins.
1990 - Pope John Paul II awarded the church the title of Minor Basilica.
This is the historical birthplace of our Marczak family.
First as peasants/serfs to the Radziwill nobility "szlachta"
Michał Kazimierz "Rybenko" Radziwiłł (1702-1762) Great Hetman of Lithuania, Voivode of Vilna.
Like his father, he was the starost of a number of towns, including Przemysl, Bratslav, Kamieniec Podolski, Człuchów, Ostra, Krzyczów, Ovruch, Nowy Targ, Parczew, Osiek and Kaunas (Kowno).
Starost is a a nobleman who possessed a starosty
Starosty is a castle with a domain which included towns and it's townfolk. ( Starosty owned are not necessarily adjoining towns - they can be all over the place - a bit like Eddy living in Leicester and having his own starosty in York !! )
Later controled by varous occupying countries.
In the third partition of 1795 Parcew became part of the Austrian empire. In 1807 Napoleon made it part of the Duchy of Warsaw - an annex of the French Empire. and then following the defeat of Napoleon in 1812 directly occupied by the Russians / Tzar under a fuedal system until after the 1st World War / Polish Bolshewik war around 1920.
In 1874 the Uniate ( Eastern Catholics) bishopric was liquidated by the Russian authorities and all of the local Uniates were forcibly converted to the Russian Orthodox Church. Around Parczew those that did not convert were tortured, killed or exiled to Siberia.
There is a rememberance memorial stone at the entrance to the church. [ Uniate church ? see bottom of page ]
This history of partition and rule made the Parczew peasants deaply patriotic and always eager to resist and join uprisings.
Parcew townfolk were historically involved in at least 3 bouts of deportations to Siberia. ( 1812, 1863 and 1874 )
Before 1874 Parczew had around 10,000 population roughly 50% Jewish and 50% Uniate.
Rememberance stone to Uniate tortures and murders in 1874
Picture above shows the Germans entering the town in 1915 ending over 100 years of Russian control. Stanislaw would have been 18 at this time.
The Gernans entered the town in 1915 during the first world war which they subsequently lost and Poland found itself on the map again as the Polish 2nd Republic for a brief period of 20 years until the start of the 2nd World War in 1939 when it was occupied again by Russia.
In 1941 Germany invaded Russia and occupied all of Poland. In 1942 Parczew Jews were sent to Treblinka concentration camp. However up to 30,000 eastern Polish Jews did flee into the surrounding forests between Parczew and Wlodawa and set up Jewish Partisan fighter groups.
The 2008 Daniel Craig film Defiance covers this resistance about the Bielski Brothers in the Kresy Belarus forests.
During Soviet occupation The Bielski family took part as low level administrators in the new government set up by the Soviets, which strained their relations with the local Poles,
The film downplays the close connection with the Jewish partisans and the Russions and links to the NKVD which alienated many Polish patriots - the Jewish partisans actually linked up with the Russians in fighting against Polish homeland resistance groups.
Quote "some Poles fear "Hollywood has airbrushed out some unpleasant episodes from the story", such as the Bielski partisans' affiliation with those Soviet partisans directed by the NKVD, who committed atrocities against Poles in eastern Poland, including the region where Bielski's unit operated.
After the war in 1946 Parczew was one of the very few towns which tried to re-introduce a Jewish community "shtetl ". However with the fear of another dominent jewish business monopoly to the exclusion of the Poles and with the historical links to the Russian NKVD, such a move did not go down well with the some of the local polish peasants.
About 200 Jews were inhabiting the town by early 1946, but most of them fled Parczew in early 1946, when three Jews were killed in a pogrom (violent riot) by Polish peasants and several houses robbed.
During my visit Andrzey Szczerbinski pointed out some of the jewish shops that were set up at the time.
2] Our Family
Our grandfather Stanislaw, his mother and father (Jozef and Karolina. Jozef worked in the forests as a 'leszniczy ')., brother Jan and sisters Marrianna, Waleria (and Wladyslawa?) were all born here.
His sisters Marrianna and Waleria maried in this town and died here and are buried in the main church grave yard.
Sister Waleria married Jan Popkowski and thier daughter Maria married Wieslaw Truss and their children - my 2nd cousins still live on the original strip of land 4 or 5 plots from the Marczak plot.
Marianna married Jan Nowicki - their sons Felix and Stanislaw were sent to Auschwitz ( as was Stanislaws brother Jan - sent as resistance fighters - officially as Political Agitators ) - daughter Elzbieta married Jan Szczerbinski and moved to Warsaw.
Stanislaw Sister Waleria tree below
Stanislaws sister Marianna's tree below
Above : In Parczew - Tadzik Marczak , Wieslaw Truss, Elzbieta Szczerbinska nee Nowicka, Maria Truss nee Popkowska and Regina Kowal nee Marczak.
Quote "Until the rise of powerful monarchies with central bureaucracies, it was the lord of the manor who was the real ruler of society. The peasant worked the land for him and owed him a number of feudal dues (much later commuted to money payments as time went by); justice was dispensed in the manorial courts. Customs varied, but it was common for a peasant to have a small plot, or to share a communal plot, on which to grow food for himself and his family and to be entitled to gather firewood from forest land for the hearth fire. More common than single plots, however, was the system of dividing the land into strips, with each household's strips scattered about the manor."
I was amazed that this fuedal system of giving strips of land to peasants was still in evidence in Parczew as long strips of plots all around the main church.
These strips are not wide enough for the width of a conventional wooden house so you find many are built side on.
The strip plots include the historical MARCZAK plot and our relatives TRUSS plot 126 who still live there. ( Trussowie)
Our family plots are close to the main church on the same street called ul. Koscielna ( Church Street ) on the outskirts of the town.
Historically the town centres were occupied primarily by the Jews who had businesses and shops - the Polish peasant worked in agriculture or forestry in the main so lived on the outskirts of the town.
Aerial shot of the Marczak and Truss plots
Above at the front of the MARCZAK Dzialka (Plot) with my 2nd. cousin Halina Tryniecka nee Truss
As you can see the main church is only a short distance from the Marczak plot.
The original Truss wooden house still occupies the front of their plot - it's no longer lived in - a pleasant brick bungalow has been built alongside.
Above - with the Truss's and Szczerbinski's
Tadzik Truss next to me in the family tradition still works in the timber industry - manufacturing timber frames for the housing industry.
Along ul.Koscielna old historical wooden cottages reside side by side with their modern replacements.
Some owners are buying up two or three plots and merging them into one big plot fit for a lord ! just two plots from the Marczak plot.
3] The Church
The original wooden parish church was originally John the Baptist and was located within the castle walls - the parish takes it name from this time.
The old town was destroyed on several occasions and finally the church was burnt down. The bell tower (blt. 1675) was saved as was the Picture of the Madonna with Pear" and around 1805 was transferred to the current site outside the centre of town where there was an older wooden church (blt. 1480) . It is clear that the bell tower and the picture were part of a Uniate church.
In 1874 Uniates were forcibly instructed to convert to Russian Orthodoxy - those who persisted in practicing thier Uniate religion were fined, beaten up, killed and finally 22 families were exiled to Siberia.
Most simply stopped going to church
In 1905 Tsar Nicholas ll instructed a more tolerant acceptance of peoples religions and almost immediately 4600 Uniates in Parczew converted to the Catholic religion and the building of a new brick church commenced.
Built in 1905-13 in the neo-Gothic style with certain neo-Lublin Renaissance features and twin towers, all in bare brick with stone features. The earlier wooden parish church, which dated from 1480 was demolished when the new church was built. The altar is an interesting exercise in black and gold gothic. It is well worth seeing. There is a picture of 'Madonna and child with a pear' which is uncovered during Mass.
This picture originated from the Parczew Uniate Church !
The first recorded message about this painting dates back to 1828, when it was rescued from a fire of the wooden Uniate church in which the picture was present.
Would appear that the current Catholic church is keen in preserving it's "Uniate" roots.
It was given title of Bazylika Mniejsza (minor basilica) by Pope John Paul ll in 1990.
Also in the grounds is a "way of the Cross " sculpture garden.
Lila and Andrzej Szczerbinski and Halina
Family Graves in Parczew.
Stanislaws sisters Waleria and Marianna ( shown as Maria )
Rememberance for Stanislaw and Felix who perished at Auschwitz on their mother and fathers grave
Maria Truss was Stanislaws sister Waleria's daughter.
4] Uniate Church - Were the Marczak's more inclined to the Greek Orthodox - Greek Catholic religion in times past?
Well here's a nice conundrum - just when you thought we had "Roman Catholic" running through our entire history.
Well Parczew was never full blooded Poland.
If you take the middle of Poland say Warsaw as being 100% Polish and Moscow as being 100% Muscovite ie Russian then in-between you'd expect a bit of a mixture of cultures.
Add to this mixture a culture called Ruthenian - White Ruthenians in the north and Red Ruthenians in the south roughly occupying the Kresy lands.
White in Polish is Biały, in Russian Bielo.
Historically, in English, Belarus was sometimes referred to as "White Russia" or more accurately "White Ruthenia"
So you find place names in eastern Poland such as Bialystok, Biala Podlaska, Bielsk Podlaski which are essentially White Ruthenian names.
Red Ruthenia - in russian " Chervena Rus" part of current SE Poland
Ruś Czerwona (Red Ruthenia)
and
Ukraine although for some Ukraine means Borderlands or Steppes.
So is this the reason the Polish flag is white on top and red below ??
When we travelled to Belarus last year we were seeing Russian Orthodox churches with separate bell towers well before we got to the border which puzzled me a bit at the time - after all we were still in a Catholic country!
So your now into a mix of cultures but your also on the frontier between Roman Catholic religion in the west and Russian (ie Greek) Orthodox in the east.
And lo and behold you get a religion that is essentially Greek Orthodox but who's head is the Pope in the Vatican.
This religion is the Uniate - Uniate Church ( also known as Greek Catholic) maintains allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church while observing the rites of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
The Uniate Church recognises the primacy of the see of Rome but retains its own eastern traditions, for example allowing its clergy to marry.
In eastern Poland the Uniate Church, in accepting the papal authority in Rome, became an instrument promoting Polish dominance in the region against Russian control.
During Russian rule peoples of these regions were subjected to elements of Russification which included forced conversion to Russian Orthodoxy religion.
Catholic and Uniate worship was prohibited.
In 1905 Uniates all over the eastern teritories converted to the Catholic religion thus the Catholic Church took over many of these Uniate churches - so today's descendants are wholy Roman Catholic.
In Ukraine Uniate churches still exist but the tensions between them and Russian Orthodoxy exist to this day.
The old common graveyard from 1795 in Parczew was predominently "Uniate" with some who converted to Russian Orthodox.
The Bell Tower was Uniate.
The picture in the current Catholic church comes from a Uniate church.
There is a memorial stone to the Uniates outside the entrance to the current Catholic church.
Infact this church was built by the 4,600 Uniates who converted to Catholic in 1905 ( this was half the population - the other half being Jewish )
Everything strongly suggests middle age ( 1550's - 1905 ) Marczak's for nearly 400 years must have been Uniates - ?
When Stanislaw was born in 1897, Parczew had no religion - his Uniate parents ( Josef and Karolina) must have gone quiet on religion ( or underground) along with other Uniates they would have refused to worship the Russian Orthodox rite.
So interesting as to when Stanislaw was baptised into the Catholic religion - sometime after 1905 I suspect?
1905 - Tsar Nicholas ll - as a consequence of internal political troubles, Nicholas II promulgated the constitution in 1905, and published the edict of religious toleration. Two years of liberty were sufficient to reveal the great vitality of Catholicism in Russia, for the number of conversions to the Catholic faith, in so short a lapse of time, amounted to 500,000, including over 300,000 Uniate Catholics whom the Russian Government had compelled to declare themselves Orthodox; 100,000 of these, known in Russian as Obstinates (uporstvujushshie) had not received the sacraments for more than thirty years, during which time they frequented no church, in order not to be reckoned among the Orthodox.
The Catholic clergy developed the greatest activity in social and educational work, in the Press, and in the awakening of Christian piety; and the reactionary party of the Orthodox Church, centred in the Synod, cried out against the danger, and called for new laws to protect Orthodoxy against the assaults of militant Catholicism.
These protests and lamentations were heard; the laws relating to liberty of conscience were submitted to revision, abolished, or modified; the government refused to recognize as legitimate the conversions to Catholicism of the former Uniate Catholics; the priests who baptized children of mixed marriages were punished with fines and imprisonment; the parochial schools were closed; the confraternities and the Catholic social organizations were dissolved, and the former severity against the Catholic Press was resumed.
Below are a couple of pictures of typical Uniate church architecture - compare the bell tower to the one preserved in Parczew -
5] Uniate's of Parczew ( Google translation )
These events occured during the time of our Great GrandParents Josef and Karolina.
http://kopawel1.w.interia.pl/parczewscy%20unici.htm
In 1860’s began "converting" Uniates to Orthodoxy. The first stage was "cleansing the church of Rome zaśmiecenia. Ordered the removal of altars, organs, monstrance, used in processions, banners, flags, feretronów, as well as ringtones. Abolished some Catholic churches adopted the "Rosary" worship and prayer,, etc.Carols and other songs in Polish were banned . Uniate priests barred from preaching sermons in Polish. Even outside the church were allowed to speak to the faithful only in Russian.
Authorities tried to achieve "the goodness", using bribery, various kinds of promises, but also frightening. When it did not help, there was a terror.
In Parczew in 1867 was ordered to remove from the church authorities and forbidden to sing Polish songs. Organist objected to this, so he was imprisoned. At the same time Uniate priest, Fr. Michael Zatkalik was ordered to celebrate divine services in the Orthodox rite. The faithful for a long time we gathered in the church and sang in Polish, despite the imposition on them of increasing penalties, even though arrests. Russian guards along with the mayor repeatedly provoked scandals in the church and confusion at the time of Catholic worship.
When the bans, and harassment did not help, authorities have sent troops, which was rozkwaterowane Catholic churches in homes - after 4-8 sołdatów with horses. The army remained dependent Uniates for 7 weeks in August and September. During this time the hosts were forced to dig ditches, cleaning roads of mud, were driven to the distant and pointless carts, but were not allowed to go to work on the field, was not given the power to mow than winter corn grain. Uniates, however, they did not break and still persisted in their faith.
Cruelest persecution and repression began in November 1874 Events that take place when Parczew could recall times of the first Christians.
It started from the fact that the Uniates not let zastraszonemu by the parish priest to celebrate the Orthodox worship. Do not let the priest to the church, declaring that the church is not orthodox. Then after a few days to Parczew army arrived. He came as the chief administrative district Włodawskie Colonel Tur. The faithful crowd gathered around the church, pokładli the cross and defend access to it, praying and singing pious songs. Do not heeded calls to withdraw from the head of the church. Then przypuściło army assault, lying trampling men with rifle butts, whips and wyciorami. Nobody retreated and fled. Then the men began to pull out into the streets and falling lash into the blood. Then he herded them into the Jewish synagogue, and there were closed for the day, related to discontinued Wlodawa prisoner in the White and Siedlce.
Once the church was not men, its women and the defense stood zatarasowały entrance. Cossacks on the instructions of the head began to pull them by the hair, kick and beat whips. Many women had suffered heavily and then, a few have died as a result of the beatings.
The next day the chief called Tur Uniates and persuaded them to accept the Orthodox faith, and then the car will forgive them so far resisted. When all refused, imposed on each of a large fine, which was to increase every day until they give up resistance.
Soon Uniates again was sent troops who cared even cruel. The hosts, where they were imprisoned, fled to the forests. In the woods or in Catholic families hiding the girls, even women with children, at risk of rape by the military. During those months the management of Russian soldiers themselves in their homes and farms, which obniszczyli completely, leaving no or belongings or furniture.
Searching for hiding Uniates, guards perpetrated numerous atrocities. Tortured to death, the village headman Kostry Kuźmiuk Nicholas, who did not want to spend, where they hid Uniates. Francis Grabowski, healthy, 35-year-old man beaten in detention, died in prison soon. As a result of beating or two women who died, and Terlecka Michalukowa. Huggins first four children, the other five. Their husbands were deported to Siberia.
Several dozen men punished by imprisonment, and 22 were sentenced and deported to Siberia. Here is a list of exported Uniates:
1st Michael Czuryło - left his wife and children
2nd Piwowarczuk - left his wife and children
3rd Joseph Michaluk - a wife and 1 child
4th Peter Ściuba - a wife and 3 children
5th Andrew Switzerland - a wife and 2 children
6th Andrew Michaluk - lost his wife, which is itself a result of beatings by guards, exported from the 4 children
7th John Terlecki - a wife and 7 children
8th Terlecki Francis - lost his wife, who died as a result of beatings by guards, exported from the 5 children
9th Joseph Danielkiewicz - his wife died, he transported children from 5
10th Matejczuk Thomas - a wife and 3 children
11th Jan Matejczuk - a wife, mother and 1 child
12th John Panasiuk - a wife, three children and elderly parents
13th Humphrey Panasiuk - a wife and 6 children
14th Peter Panasiuk - a wife and 5 children
15th Humphrey Talarko - a wife, three children and old parents
16th Gregory Bzoma - a wife and 6 children
17th Nicholas Datsyuk - a wife and 7 children
18th Nicholas Jaszczuk - a wife and 5 children
19th Simon Kościańczuk - a wife and four children
20th Philip Chomiuk - a wife and child
21st Elijah Chomiuk - a wife and 5 children
22nd Anthony Talarko - a wife and 6 children
Mostly people were here Lasek, Kostrów, Żminnego and Glinnego Stok. Uniates Farms of the exported underwent confiscated. Received them Orthodox, most deserving guards.
Meanwhile, the authorities intensified pressure on the parish priest, Fr. Michael Zatkalika that introduced the Orthodox liturgy in the church. Evil, warped out as he could until he was deprived of his position and thrown out of the house with his family. He was the last pastor of the Uniate Parczew. His place became obedient to the authority of Nicholas Lisowski, which since 1876 has introduced Easter in the Orthodox Church Orthodoxy.
Since then Uniates stopped going to church. According to the local tradition, sometimes surreptitiously checking whether there is a famous painting of Our Lady graces of the Child, to which they were very attached. Orthodox and were in Parczew few, only the guards and Russian officials. Pop reportedly complained that he could not find a man who would be willing to call on Orthodox worship.
However, the saints of the church entrance was strictly prohibited. Catholic priests for giving the priestly ministry of saints, the sacrament, or even threatened burial Siberia. But this service is not denied. Priests gave baptisms, weddings, confessions - in secret or in hiding in the woods. They wrote about it in his novels and short stories writers known as Reymont, Zeromski, Weyssenhoff. Often mentioned is also a local family tradition.
Many Uniates abandoning everything, have fled abroad, the Austrian partition, where not persecuted for their faith. Some returned after 1905. Other dressing up there, for example, to baptize a child or get married and come back soon. Of course, crossed the border illegally, and is associated with substantial costs.
Persecuted saints give aid and shelter and often Catholic families. Often they were just neighbors who took care of children or belongings. Help organize or princes, of course, on the sly. Uniates of Czeberak, the geese or the Kostrów often found in rescue and support milanowskim "palace". Here are excerpts from the memoirs of Countess Zoltowski Milanov:
"We lived on the ground floor from the garden. Well, I knew the fugitives, to knock on the window. Then my mother hurried them to open, something whispering to them, letting some of the room, others give an allowance. Of course, this took place at night, in great secrecy."
"Fleeing saints gave my mother money, passport or some type of pass and despatched 'abroad', that is, to Galicia.
"In Milan węszyli gendarmes and rummage, looking for fugitives from Siberia and that" the palace "has no undercover religious education and the Polish language. In fact, my mother taught me and dragged to the social work. I learned as I could, probably not very enduring, but I was happy when my students just seemed catechism exams before their first Holy Communion. "
"When it was issued" tolerant edict, crowds from all twelve parishes concentrated in Parczew started as Exodus, calling for the immediate baptism and birth certificates. Each of our family including me - still almost a child, we had a dozen or so chrześniaków. I shall never forget the crowds, which wandering around in an old wooden church in Parczew.
After 1905, as a result of that the author's memories of the Tsar "ukase tolerant" Uniates from the area Parczew numbering around 4,600 people converted to Catholicism.
Many years of efforts by the Russian authorities were really Syzyfowe. Cruel persecution and harassment that not only did not yield the desired results, but have produced effects quite opposite. Uniates, considering abandoning their faith for the heaviest crime, often preferred to die in torment, than to go to Orthodoxy. Thus resisted Russification. Today their descendants are simply Catholic and Polish population.
Please note that Parczew had its martyrs for their faith and country.
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